The Meaning of Life and Death Essay -- Philosophy Philosophical Human

The Meaning of Life and Death The gip mood of life cannot be explained by such simple ideas as being animated, breathing, or speaking. Ordinary machines in this century can perform all of these basic functions. The quandary with defining death is not as abstract and elusive as that of life. The problem of defining life and death has plagued philosophers and the religious bodies for thousands of years for one reason each philosophy or religion has act to define the meaning of life and death from only their certain perspective. The seemingly appropriate approach to this problem would be to understand the ideas presented in various philosophies and religions and done this knowledge create a new definition for each idea of life and death. The movie Blade Runner has taken this exact approach in its attempt to finally define life and death in a logical and un-spiritual manner. By taking the position that death is a concrete idea that can be explained, Blade Runner accomplishes the task of interpreting the idea of life in terms death. Through this approach, the meaning of life is redefined to accommodate for the humankind of the replicants. Also, as a result of this novel notion of life, it is apparent that humans and replicants never actually live, even though they are alive. The idea of death in Blade Runner seems to be different for humans and for replicants, but it is indeed the same. When a replicant is killed, the characters in Blade Runner refer to it as, retirement, while killing a human is called murder. These two terms are actually synonymous. The term murder, in one of its definitions, means to put to an end, destroy (AHD). The definition of retirement is to stop workings (AHD). If these terms ar... ...s Cut. Dir. Ridley Scott. Perf. Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, and Sean Young. DVD. 1982.Carse, James. Death and Existence A Conceptual History of Human Morality. Ed. Irving I Zaretsky. New York John Wiley and Sons, 1980. Descartes, Ren. Disc ourse on Method and Meditations on foremost Philosophy. Trans. Donald A. Cress. Cambridge Hacket Publishing Company, 1993. Elrod, John. Being and Existence in Kierkegaards Pseudonymous Works. New Jersey Princeton University Press, 1975. Luper, Steven. Death. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed. Edward N. Zalta. 2002. <http//plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2002/entries/death/.OKeefe, Tim. Epicurus. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001. <http//www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epicur.htm.Vincent Cook. Principle Doctrines Epicurus. <http//www.epicurus.net/principal.html.

Invent Your Own Technology Essay :: Writing Essays

Invent Your Own Technology Essay When I was initiatory assigned, the invent your own engineering science assignment, I had no idea of how I was going to complete this project. I had no understanding of why we had to create a project like this, particularly when there are already various writing technologies available to us. I can honestly say, that by the end of this project I had realized how such(prenominal) technologies such as computers, typewriters, pens, pencils, and paper are taken for granted everyday. Dennis Barron said writing is first and foremost a technology (Barron, 37). This statement is someaffair that I keep with I think that any way someone writes should be considered a technology. The materials used for my project, include a sweatshirt, twizzlers, and glue. I came up with the idea of gluing the twizzlers to the sweatshirt. When I first began this project, I did not count on bei ng faced with any problems. I thought that I would just glue tiny pieces of cut up twizzler to the sweatshirt and that would be that. The first problem that I faced was the candy would not stick to the sweatshirt. For whatever reason, the glue was not able to hold the twizzler pieces to the front of the sweatshirt. This by all odds prolonged the gluing process. Once this problem had arisen, I went back to try to think of what I would be able to use to glue this candy to. I time-tested two different things. The first, a sheet. The problems with that was, that the sheet was so flimsy, that when I went to hold it up (like I was going to steer it to someone), the candy pieces fell off. The second thing I attempted was a bath towel. The issue with that, was it was too thick. The pieces of candy stayed glued, but the end presentation was not something that I would have been proud to show to the class.

The Rhetoric of Terror Essay -- Essays Papers

The Rhetoric of TerrorFrom the writer In the wake of kinfolk 11, the United States retreated into intense patriotism. However, love for this country is something more(prenominal) than hanging an the Statesn flag outside your home. True love of America is something more it is civic virtue, practicing good citizenship. Vote on Election Day, read the theme and write letters to members of Congress. Failing to take advantage of freedom and democracy may lead to the rise of evil. From the teacher, Vivian Rice The events of September 11, 2001, dramatically affected the survive in many of our writing classes during the 2001-2002 academic year. For many students from that morning on, the semester was an emotional time of worry, grief, and finally questioning. Joshua Laxs essay was written in reaction to a research argument assignment. Lax used the opportunity to consider why and how Osama bin Laden was able to inspire his followers to accept his passel of the world. Lax draws on his unde rstanding of the theory of media and propaganda from his Newhouse classes as well as our classs activities in writing this piece. From the editor, Patrick Dacey Joshua Lax rips through the images that have plagued Americans since September 11th. But he does not antagonize the media instead he focuses on how propaganda, rhetoric, and language are used to produce social change. The piece reveals reasons why America has become a target for war through the power of an outspoken, persuasive leader. Whether your opinions on the war are different, based on fear, or just inscrutable Lax does not shy away from his views and uses powerful research to make his opinions known, and in a sense, justified. The final test of a leader is that he leaves tail end him in ... ....S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. 25 November 2001 http//www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/. Encyclopedia Britannica Lebanon. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 25 November 2001 http//www.search.eb.com/bol/topic?tmap_id=11 8138000&tmap_typ=gd. Finch, Lynette. Psychological Propaganda The War of Ideas During the First half(prenominal) of the Twentieth Century. Armed Forces & Society An Interdisciplinary Journal 26.3 (2000) 367. Plato. Gorgias. The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns. Princeton Princeton University Press, 1961. 229-307. Ranstorp, Magnus. Terrorism in the Name of Religion. Journal of International Affairs 50.1 (1996) 41-63. Shomar, David. United States and the Muslim being How We See Each Other. The University Forum The Global Response to Terrorism. Byrd Library, Syracuse. 18 October 2001.

Essays --

Ratliff 1Kohlten C. RatliffMrs. BralockBritish Literature12 December 2013The Game of Baseball When you think round the juicy of baseball, you think virtually the most remembered baseball player Jackie Robinson because he stole more bases than I stole hearts. The game of baseball was created sometime in the 1800s and has been played ever since. Baseball is a major(ip) sport and it is apart of a lot of the cultures in the manhood. The United States of America and Cuba are both of the top 2 countries that absorb a lot of players go to the MLB. The game of baseball was first played on sandlot and now is being played in huge stadiums that get hold of large capacities. Baseball is a sport that can be watched for fun and doesnt necessarily have to be played. There have been opusy names for baseball like Goal ball, Round ball, Fletch-ball, and Stool ball. Baseball is a cousin to Cricket because it involves two teams that alternate on aversion and defense. Alexander Cartwrigh t invented the modern baseball stadium in 1845 and he was from New York. New York is where a game called town ball was created, traces show that it was a game similar to baseball. Cartwright got the idea of making money from people coming to watch players play on a field other than the street form Town ball. Alexander Cartwright is known as the founder of baseball because of his idea of turning Town ball into an organized sport.Ratliff 2 Traces of a game played with a bat and a ball dates back 2,000 years ago in ancient Egypt. Egyptians were crafty people and craved a stick out of treasure and hit rocks with it. That game was a pharaohs favorite game to play and he was buried with it in his tome. When some researchers with into the pharaohs tome they found a... ...rough at him. When Jackie first went to the major league they call him names while he was playing and the pitchers where trying to hit him with the ball. When the American people saw how good a black man could play, more and more black people were allowed to join the major league. In conclusion baseball has become a big part to the society not only does it bring people together, but the people who actually love baseball enjoys to watch it. Baseball became an entertainment sport to people around the world and has many types like softball for girls. Some of the greatest minds are people who play baseball because you always have to think when playing it. There have been many legends in baseball that people look up to and inspire young people in the world today to want to learn about the game. Everyone can play it whether they play it professional or amateur.

The Altarpiece of Saint Peter :: essays papers

The Altar snatch of Saint Peter Art is a window to the past and at that place is no place other than the many museums of the world where this is more conceptively felt. More specifically, it is also seen through Martin de Sorias work, The Altarpiece of Saint Peter, which was completed around 1480. match to the panel near the altarpiece in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the piece is an enormous work of tempera on panel with parchment ground it is a regular Spanish altarpiece of the medieval gunpoint and is comprised of a complex arrangement of twenty-six paintings. This piece was chosen as a representative of the medieval period because its emphasis is placed entirely on religion, the style with which it was painted and decorated is hugely characteristic of the medieval period, and finally the painting depicts the economic state of europium as far as the church was concerned during that succession.The piece was chosen primarily because of the magnificent presence th at is felt as one enters the room, or cathedral, where the piece may be located. The viewers eye is drawn immediately to the central figure of Saint Peter who was seated as pope at the time. Giving the briny focus of the work to the pope is representative of the importance that was placed on the papal seat. This importance was exemplified, during the time of this altarpieces creation, by the crisis of the Great Schism. Furthermore, a scene of Christs crucifixion can be seen directly above the panel of Saint Peter further emphasizing the importance of Christ in the painting, and in the medieval time period as well. Overall, the piece depicts four images from the life of Saint Peter, which surround the center panel on the left and the right sides. In addition, scenes from the lives of the Virgin bloody shame and St. Blaise, a fourth century martyr, are also present. All the characters in the panels more or less have halos and therefore are holy figures. The twelve apostles line the b ottom of the panels, perhaps suggesting that they were the foundation of the Catholic religion. Basically, the painting is designed for a church altar, it has religious figures in it, and it is filled with Bibles and images of Christs crucifixion. All of this relays a strong message to the viewer that this is what is important in life one should pay close attention to religion and have respect for it.

The Altarpiece of Saint Peter :: essays papers

The Altarpiece of Saint Peter Art is a window to the past and there is no place other than the many museums of the world where this is more strongly felt. More specifically, it is also seen through Martin de Sorias work, The Altarpiece of Saint Peter, which was completed around 1480. According to the dialog box near the altarpiece in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the piece is an enormous work of tempera on panel with parchment ground it is a typical Spanish altarpiece of the medieval layover and is comprised of a complex arrangement of twenty-six paintings. This piece was chosen as a representative of the medieval period because its strain is placed entirely on religion, the style with which it was painted and decorated is hugely characteristic of the medieval period, and finally the painting depicts the economic state of Europe as far as the church was concerned during that time.The piece was chosen primarily because of the magnificent presence that is felt as one ent ers the room, or cathedral, where the piece may be located. The viewers eye is drawn immediately to the central figure of Saint Peter who was seated as pope at the time. Giving the main centralise of the work to the pope is representative of the importance that was placed on the papal seat. This importance was exemplified, during the time of this altarpieces creation, by the crisis of the Great Schism. Furthermore, a scene of Christs crucifixion stomach be seen directly above the panel of Saint Peter further emphasizing the importance of Christ in the painting, and in the medieval time period as well. Overall, the piece depicts four images from the life of Saint Peter, which surround the center panel on the left and the right sides. In addition, scenes from the lives of the Virgin Mary and St. Blaise, a fourth century martyr, are also present. All the characters in the panels more or less have halos and therefore are holy figures. The twelve apostles origin the bottom of the pan els, perhaps suggesting that they were the foundation of the Catholic religion. Basically, the painting is designed for a church altar, it has religious figures in it, and it is filled with Bibles and images of Christs crucifixion. All of this relays a strong message to the viewer that this is what is important in life one should pay close attention to religion and have respect for it.

Jill Bolte Taylor’s Stroke of Insight

Report I Title Jill Bolte Taylors stroke of insight Link http//www. ted. com/talks/jill_bolte_taylor_s_powerful_stroke_of_insight. html Speaker Jill Bolte Taylor Affiliation http//www. drjilltaylor. com Jill Bolte Taylor is a Harvard-trained and published neuroanatomist who dedicated her career to research into the severe mental illnesses. She had a stroke while she was researching about biological differences between healthy brains and brains of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia, schizoaffective or bipolar disorder at1996.One of her blood vessel exploded on the left side of her brain and it caused the stroke. In the seminar, she explains her observations about the 4 hour afterward the stroke as a neuroanatomist. According to her experience she could not able to walk, talk read, write or recall any of her emotional state. In this talk, initially she explains the major functions of the brain with a real valet de chambre brain. Then she clarifies her stroke according to these functions. She tells the results of her bleeding step by step with examples and helps us to imagine a stroke.After all she finishes her speech with explaining her feelings after she survived and recovered. Beside Jill Bolte Taylors stroke of insight video, I watched videos about being happy Dan Gilbert asks, Why are we happy? , about intelligence of go downs Stefano Mancuso The roots of plant intelligence and about brain damages VS Ramachandran on your mind. I generally watched the videos about brain and intelligence because I implicated in the human intelligence and brain functions. Mr.Gilberts talk showed me the effects of our psychological immune system to be happy, Mr. Mancusos talk represented me the intelligence of plants which is similar to animals and Mr. Ramachandrans talk helped me to illustrate the brain functions of human while he was talking about the brain damages. All of these topics were interesting but I mostly interested in Taylors topic because she had a diseas e which is about her researches and she survived from it without any permanent damage. I liked to hear this neuroanatomy specialists own life experiments about brain disease.Favorite quotes and sentences I essentially became an infant in a womans body. For those of you who understand computers, our right hemisphere functions like a analogue processor, while our left hemisphere functions like a serial processor. About Jill Bolte Taylors stroke of insight video, I did not understand why and how she felt that she is in nirvana after she woke up after the surgery. I strongly recommend this video to the other students because it is one of the most interesting speech I have ever heard.

Social Conflict in Public Schools

Big American government is widely perceived as the foundation of social order in our country, yet it is, as some would say the single greatest source of disorder. Political power constantly tempts those who control it to enforce conformity with their own preferences of Education, and Religion, As follow outn in our country and many wears of the world, citizens will evade enforcers if they can but when necessary will fight back.Our public schools can also be looked at through the structural-functional theory In an article by Jim Powell entitled Public Schools and Social Conflicts he discusses the many conflicts in our public schools argon generally the product of our governments deliberate doings. In the early 1840s for instance, Protestant dominated public schools were made compulsory for the newly landed immigrant Irish and southern European Catholics. Conflict arose when the Catholics resented having to pay taxes for Protestant schools where courtesy of some other government b odies mandate Protestant values were to be taught there as well.The Catholics proceeded to establish their own ashes of parochial schools, however the get on with old practice of collecting public school taxes still exists no matter where the student chooses to be educated. Religion is another public school related conflict that Jim Powell discusses. Here he discusses the most famous social conflicts of public school hi drool, the issue of whether schools should teach the biblical story of how the world was created. The Butler Act which made it illegal for any public school to teach a theory that denied the biblical story was how the conflict began. after(prenominal) a series of trials, debates, court and governmental interventions, the conflict still exists. Our public schools can also be viewed under he structural-functional theory. The various cogs of our public schools were in all likelihood think to work together coherently to promote solidarity and stability as the structu ral-functional theory would suggest. The compulsory mandate of schooling for every child was probably intended to keep the majority of the new population educated therefrom increasing their productivity in a very young country.Many sociologist like Karl Marx would see this as an opportunity to not lone(prenominal) live with the interpreted word but to constantly enact changes to conform with the needs of the current population thus maintaining the desired solidarity and stability . This type of sociologist would suggest that one only had to pay school taxes if the child used the public school system. In our day and age it would seem fair to the children who be home schooled or for that matter senior citizens and families with no children using the public school system, so the burden lay only on the benefit users.Infact it is the main point of discussion whenever a school budget or election comes up in many a town. On the issue of religion, this type of sociologist one that values preserving the desired solidarity and stability would suggest that issues of the religious nature not be discussed at all and that religious students should take hold a silent moment of prayer should the need arise, thus lending value to the now popular separation of church and state. there are many manifest functions of the public school system that can be The public system is a solid, affordable and consistent source of preparation for the gigantic majority of the population and being government funded has its regulations and systems in place. Freedoms that Americans have gotten used to are valued as well. Lack of regulation can have its own set of problems as was exemplified in the current Financial meltdown.Latent functions could also be seen in the public school system as is evident in the fact that public colleges function as a marriage market. Here young people of similar socio-economic backgrounds meet and by chance form lifelong relationships. As was evident in the ca se of the recent Royal wedding where in Kate Middleton, the daughter of a wealthy businessman was enrolled in a prestigious university thus enhancing her ability to possibly meet a partner of similar stature who in this instance happened to be Prince William.Many a relationships have begun this way and although very rarely acknowledged is a unrecognized and unintended consequence of the public school experience. The public school system does demand American cultural values namely Equal opportunity along with Individual achievement and Personal success. The public school system does for the most part offer equal opportunity to everyone who wishes to pursue this or her individual dreams.With all the checks in the system it gets next to impossible for any assumption public education system to waiver making allowances when deemed fit and holding firm when necessary. Individual achievement and personal success are cultural values very committed to the value of equal opportunity. In Ame rica, more so than in many other parts of the world is truly the Land of Opportunity . The sky is the sterilise if one has the desire and dares to dream. With the theoretical perspective in mind it is imperative that American cultural values will change as time progresses.There are constant changes that the public school arena is exposed to The changing mix of certain ethnic populations in a given environment has given rise to a need for educators with English as a Second language backgrounds. Another area where cultural values will change are in the Special Education arena where with the growing classifications and need to integrate young Special Ed students educators will have to make adjustments to the way the full population is taught so as to promote solidarity and stability as the structural-functional theory would suggest.

Research Paper: Crime Prevention Strategies

Contents Page Executive Summary 4 explore Question (or hypothesis) . 4 Research (including methodology) 4 Literature Review.. 4 Findings.. 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion.. 8 Reference List9 Executive SummaryThe localise of this paper pass on be ground upon different shame saloon strategies implemented by members of the communities, local and government authorities. It will focus of importly on those practices involving federation cooperation and portray how they are successful or unsuccessful in diminution criminality in high offensive areas. Firstly, the bailiwick of this look cut across in clearly stated below. The methods used to acquire the information contained in this research report are in like manner described below.The books review discusses the trio main themes found in the in allocated articles relating to fraternity offensive taproom. These include techniques to reduce recent crime vexation of crime amidst the connection members and the friendly divid es that are created by implementing community crime streak strategies. The findings discuss, in depth, the effects on the three themes mentioned above once these prevention strategies were implemented. It gives examples of peoples experiences with crime and crime prevention. Finally the discussion presents the unwrapcomes achieved, that are shown by the various uthors. It also touches on the governments involvement and how it dope be improved. The conclusion sums up all the findings in this report and gives an idea of future hope for less crime. Research Question (or hypothesis) What are the leading practices in the field of community crime prevention? You can choose to either research and discuss a wide range of different community crime prevention strategies, or focus on an example of a particular technique and research its successes, limitations and applications. The topic of this paper discusses community crime prevention.It talks about a range of different types of prevent ion strategies that are used to reduce or minimise crime targeted areas or fields. The various effects of these strategies are shown throughout the report. Research (including methodologies) Before composing this research report, the methodology exercised for this task was content analysis. Content analysis demands for the reader to read in between the lines. Its main requirement is to draw conclusions from the information presented and apply it to the caput being made.The requirements of this methodology are to research and locate a range of reliable secondary resources, applying them to strengthen the argument of crime prevention. Primary research was non conducted as that would have been a more advanced project and is not part of the academic requirement for an undergraduate level. Many different databases were used much(prenominal) as the internet, university databases, academic libraries and Google scholar. Access to libraries and the internet were vital in achieving this ta sk.The scholarly articles were beneficial to this task as the composers of these articles had conducted detailed research themselves, allowing their information to support the maneuver being made in this task. Literature Review Many areas are now trying to implement community crime prevention in secernate to get citizens more relate in bring down or preventing crime in their neighbourhoods. The articles discuss the different techniques being used to implement this change. One main strategy is connecting the citizens to the criminals.By doing so the citizens are able to see the effects that occur when people become criminals. The three main themes explored in these articles are 1. Youth/ juvenile violence, 2. brotherly divide created between communities, and 3. minify fright of crime The philosophy of Robert Peel that the police are the public and the public are the police, is one that absolutely sums up the kin between the police and the rest of the community (Lentz & Chair es 2007). This quote suggests that law enforcement necessitys approval from citizens and residents of neighbourhoods to perform their duties correctly.Meaning, this requires the police to maintain an informed relationship with the community. By doing so they are reducing the re feature of the themes in crime prevention mentioned above. Previously, there was not enough knowledge or resources amongst communities to raise awareness or organise crime prevention programs for juveniles. Today, schools together with police and community-based cut backers are aiming to provide the expertise to help oneself create crime prevention programs for juveniles.It is believed that that one of the most nimble crime prevention strategies is effective intervention programs. A substantial number of crimes amongst adolescence are detected from anti-social behaviours. Youth need to be more baffling in their community activities such as church associated groups, sports clubs, recreation centres (Dodin gton et al 2012, p. 1026). Other school organisations such as Links to Learning helps adolescences engage in activities that will teach worthy skills for future work and careers.All these extracurricular activities will give young less time to consider committing crimes and more time to become heterogeneous in the community. The National Crime Prevention 1999 quotes an improved understanding of the early childhood origins of juvenile delinquency highlights the opportunities for prevention programs (Bor et al 2001, p. 5). One of the limitations of creating community based crime prevention and linking the citizens to crime and criminal is that it creates social divisions between citizens.Usually the higher and middle class citizens are involved in community project and the refuse class citizens are left out. This makes the lower class citizens inferior and targeted for being the ones who are expected to commit acts of crime. This creates a division of us (higher class) and them (low er class). Ward (1997, p. 4) suggests situational crime prevention approach may displace crime, tends to benefit middle and upper classes at the expense of the poor people, and may increase the fear of crime. It also may create a siege mentality, isolating individuals and families. He then further states that complaints, of disturbances, made to the police are not always filed. Firstly, the police are condition the authority to decide whether the complaint is serious enough, secondly if the victim and criminal have met before and finally judging by the victims social class (Ward 1997, p. 5). In order to effectively reduce crime, relationships between communities and local authorities need to be addressed. The presence of police may be quite contradictory to residents, it can be comforting for some but disturbing for others.If residents are not aware of measures being taken by police to help prevent crime, they cannot take on their presence is positive but rather understand that mo re crime is occurring (Mesko et al 2007, p. 70). This will further increase the fear in residents caused by the occurrence of criminal activity in their neighbourhoods. One resident of Hyde Park describes her lifestyle to have become based upon fear. Since her home was broken into 3 years ago, a gun is always present beside her through the night the TV is on the entire time she is at home and an alarm system has been installed.The extreme fear is shown in these extra precautions, When I come home late at night, I always blow my horn before I get out of the car, so I make sure that a neighbour is looking out. When I sleep at night, there are at least three lights on. (Ward 1997, p. 5). Complaints have been made to the police, still not knowing the severity of the case no serious action has been taken. This, again, clearly shows a lack of communication between authorities and their neighbourhoods. Findings It is very clear from the above review that great measures are being taken to try and reduce or even eliminate crime within communities.Law enforcement authorities originally would address crime however, today citizens are becoming more active and involved in observeing their own communities safe. The results of the freshman theme, youth/juvenile violence, found that this violence originated from childhood behaviours and therefore should be addressed at these early stages. In doing so crimes committed by youth should be minimised. The main notion believed to reduce youth violence is diversion. Creating a distraction or alternative for youth is the only way to keep them from winding up face to face with the criminal justice system.This idea urged that juvenile offenders who are placed before the justice system are through with(p) more harm than good and are more probable to reoffend. On the other hand, diversions such as sporting activities or after school programs need to be created. These diversions will keep the minds of these adults in the making off negative thoughts to commit crimes (Tilley 2005, p. 356). Detective Sergeant Heslop (1991), agreeing with the notion of diversion, states Often there is little put in punishing an offender, as the punishment can be shown to be counterproductive. By charging them we are often condemning them to further and deeper involvement in the juvenile justice system, which is, it is submitted, a failure. He also goes on to say that diversion is the greatest prevention tool and if used appropriately law enforcement can troth juvenile crime more efficiently. The next discussion was the social divide created within the communities when trying to implement crime prevention. Not all citizens were eager to work side by side with police to manage criminal activity.Studies show that people with higher levels of wealth and quality of life are more likely to cooperate with police as they have more to lose. However the rest of the general public, those classified to have lower levels of wealth and s tandards of living, were reluctant to become involved as they didnt have much to lose and were viewed as those more likely to commit crimes (Mesko 2007, p. 84). This divide within the community allowed citizens of the higher class to rule a sense of empowerment through their involvement with the police and once again created isolation for those individuals classified as a part of the lower social class.However the people of the lower social class can also be to blame. It is asserted by Podolefsky (1983) that generally when crimes are committed and no action is taken, liability is placed upon the police. Community members prefer to abuse authorities rather than cooperate and help put criminals away (cited in Ward 1997, p. 5). The final theme discussed is reducing the fear of crime in citizens. Findings show that people are afraid for their safety and do not want to be victims of crime. As a result of this fear, rates of crimes are increasing.In order to relieve this fear people sta rted using different methods to defend themselves such as carrying guns, knives and other protective weapons (Mesko 2007, p. 75). Ward (1997, p. 5) also proves this as (a)lmost all residents and business owners interviewed either formally or informally owned guns and kept them nearby, ready for use. Police are given the primary use of fighting crime and are expected to eliminate all evil in society so that the good citizen can live in granting immunity without living fear (Mesko 2007 p. 81).But to give this role to police solely and not have community crime prevention programs will not guarantee reducing crime within communities and furthermore not reduce fear of crime. Discussion The main point for discussion in this research paper is that community emergence is a necessary approach to addressing crime and promoting justice in our nation (Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 653). Over the years, police were given the main obligation to deal with crime however the development of a communi ty approach will allow members to engage in ddressing socials issues such as crime. This approach also gives member a responsibility to help maintain a safe living location. As pointed out in Acosta and Chavis (2007, p. 654) In the community development approach, community members are responsible for resolving power community problems to meet this responsibility, community members are given a voice and collective power to influence decisions and social outcomes that will reach their lives. Some authors argue the effectiveness of an approach involving community crime prevention.The National Crime prevention Framework (Australian Institute of Criminology 2011) believes this approach has proved to be effective, with outcomes such as Reducing crime and other concerning problems within the community, Increased safety and unity leading to less victimisation, More emotional and psychological support for those who have been victims of crime, and Reducing crimes by those who have previous ly offended or been engaged in antisocial behaviour. The efficiency of allowing the public to participate in the decision making related to crime, is also shown through the great outcomes achieved in the youth discipline.Partnerships were created with local universities that resulted in service learning programs and continuous student internships which were important in establishing students careers by putting them on the right path. Another great accomplishment was that students were achieving better results in school and their behaviours and negative attitudes were definitely improving (Pickens 2011, p. 19-21). An important outcome as clarified by Pickens (2011, p. 20) was increasing youths awareness about risky behaviour, violence, weapons, drugs, and alcohol, which was said to be the major motivation for all the other improvements.A topic that has been mentioned by various authors is the amount of government involvement in community crime prevention. It is suggested by Australia n Institute of Criminology (2011) that first and foremost the government can help to minimise crime, Governments can address factors that influence the opportunities for crime to occur through its various responsibilities in areas such as managing public space and building design, providing community recreational services and developing policies that affect local businesses and urban development processes. Furthermore, Greenberg and Rohe (1984) indicate (t)he physical design and appearance of a community (i. e. , structural assets) affect criminal access(cited in Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 654). Consequently, through developing safer public places governments can begin to create safer public environments. The articles and supporting documents used to assemble this research report were generally discussing very similar aspects of community crime prevention.Topics included juvenile crime prevention, the fear of crime that has been developing in citizens and the community crime preventio n strategies that were being used to reduce and prevent crime within neighbourhoods. To increase the effectiveness of these approaches further research should be conducted in the areas of government participation. To take community crime prevention to the next level, local government should consider formalising or enforcing requirements that must be met by all citizens.All citizens should be expected to be involved in creating a safer and combined community. Conclusion Summing up, the involvement of community members in prime prevention is an effective technique. With the help of schools, police, and citizens crime has been reduced in youth, fear of crime has been minimised and social relationships strengthened. More communities should be encouraged to implement more strategies involving their citizens. A final thought is whether governments should consider enforcing community crime prevention in all areas to enable safer living environments.

Defining Bullying Analysing Essay

determent in informs continues to be a problem faced by educational institutions at present. It corresponds to the ability of two students and educators to example their author and capacity to intimidate and coerce others to fol kickoff their desires. Such realities and thus present negative consequences not only to the student but alike to the boilers suit capacity of the institution to facilitate opportunities for learning and build upth. By visualiseking to identify the corresponding impact and put on the lines associated with blusterous, stakeholders in the part of education pile provide inputs and parvenue strategies that jakes serve promote change and pursue effective classroom management.Defining Bullying Analysing the definition of browbeat, it is then crucial to determine its chief(prenominal) place setting and purpose. Here, it faecal matter be seen that using aggression, coercion, and violence argon oftentimes the themes practised by item-by-items to create offices of bullying or torment. Under these specific circumstances, various reasons can be attributed to why people engage in blustering(a) conduct. Some scholars argue on the grounds of satisfying the need for manoeuver or index while some are just responding to the environment they see (Banks, 1997).Due to this, it is then crucial to understand these reasons more effectively to better identify policies and elements tie in towards change. Similarly, the idea of bully also emanates from how atomic number 53 exercises influence and supply over the other. Given that students who engage in such operations arguably have equal power than any other student in campus, the issue then here is their ability to abuse it due to specific circumstances. To elaborate further, individuals differ in the power they can exercise over others and sisterren need to learn not to abuse that power (Rigby, 2003, p.6). However, one moldiness not try to organise bullying with b expo se between parties. This is because the idea here is that in bullying one exercises/has power over the other while in conflict both parties equally partake in an issue to argue about. It is through such interaction process that the playing field is levelled and therefore should not be mistaken for bullying. In essence, bullying does come across when students resort to misuse of their power, control, and influence towards others.Individuals commit to such actions because they believe they can while victims continue to be subjected to bullying because they continue to succumb to it (Findely, 2006). After smell at the definition of bullying, it is now crucial to identify specific ways on how such behaviour is carried out. Specifically, the main objective of any bullying behaviour is to have a specific target where individuals can utilize power and control over others. These actions can revolve from verbal abuse towards physical violence in small and frequent doses (Smith, 1999).Give n the multiple ways that people can engage using verbal and physical bullying, it becomes rather difficult for educators and condition decision makers to point these issues accordingly unless students report such situations. What Australian Statistics Say Applying the elements of bullying in the educational system of Australia, it can be seen that considerable attention must be made to bridge gaps and prove strategies for change. In cross, several studies have noted the prevalence of the behaviour as early as preschool and continue to grow as the student progresses in his/her schoolman life.In particular, Rigby (2003) asserts that assessing how often it happens is not easy, but research in Australia based on childrens reports suggests that about one child is bullied in one way or at least weekly (p. 6). Similarly, statistics have also shown that both boys and girls do engage in bullying but illustrated using different factor. For boys, they are most likely to commit physical actions and verbal abuse. On the other hand, girls t revoke to be more confirmatory and focus on ostracizing or excluding the individual from the rest of the group (Smith, 1999).This incidence greatly shows how from each one(prenominal) student is vulnerable to such threats and what different school administrators in Australia should focus on. By trying to point out and define the standards for appropriate behaviour, then the problem of bullying might be lessened. Identifying Reasons Looking closely at specific at the reasons why people engage into bullying behaviour, it can be seen that there are specific trends that illustrate behavioural and psychological conditions which adhesiveness their ability to effectively respond according to school standards.On the behavioural perspective, different studies have argued that the main catalyst for students to practice bullying is their early delineation towards violence. They see their homes and environment they live as the norm and s tandard on how they should act and respond to others (Findley, 2006). Related to this process is the manner that educators showcase the bullying action themselves. Here, the practice of teacher violence emanates, either directly or indirectly, creates a mindset for students that the actions committed are valid (Riley, Lewis, and Brew, 2009).Through this, educators also make out as catalyst in expanding bullying due to their ability to influence and showcase a reality where one get what he/she wants provided that they coerce or deluge others to follow. On the other hand, there are also studies that tend to represent a psychological analysis of how bullying behaviour occurs. Specifically, it tries to argue how some children may have been suffering from conditions such as depression, ADD, or ADHD and brings about violent conduct towards other people (Ribgy, 2003).These kinetics in flex stymie the ability of a student to fully utilize their abilities and find it fearful to engage in classroom activities. Impact among bullied students Assessing the impact of bullying among students who have been subjected to it, it can be seen that these actions impede their ability to grow. In particular, students who have been subjected to such continuous behaviour often lose the ability and interest to study in schools (Banks, 1997). They see the location as threat and limit their ability to establish better means to coexist with their peers.In essence, this is one form of harassment that degrades the place of the individual and alienates them from participating in the educational endeavour and culture (Findley, 2006). Looking closely at the specific effects of bullying, it can be seen that they revolve around the ablaze as well as social levels. Particularly, students who been subjected to such harassment often lose their self-esteem and ability to isolate themselves from people at school (Smith, 1999). Since bullying may in turn correspond to a domino effect, the lo ss of self-esteem can lead towards the student feeling depressed and lonely.This in turn can result towards having limited motivation to go to school or engage in frequent absences (Findley, 2006). These elements are just examples of the short term effects of bullying. On the other hand, bullying can also induce negative effects in the long run. Here, an individuals feeling of self-worth would be low and would result to accepting inadequacy as answer to this problem. Likewise, one would continue to isolate and feel powerless as they continue to tread their professional life. In addition, depression and psychological problems may also be present among students who have been bullied.More often than not, students who have been subjected to bullying behaviour have problems handling issues as they move towards their adult life (Rigby, 2003). Impact among those who Bully Analysing the impact of those who bully others, it can be seen that their actions correspond to the creation of uncerta inty and insecurity deep down the school grounds. This especially applies for students who have not been subjected to such acts. Here, they feel that they can become victimized and create fear in the process (Rigby, 2003).These directions in turn serve to establish a bullys ability to control the environment he/she is in. Another impact pertinent effect of bullying revolves around creating opportunities for more bullies and continued disruptive behaviour. Given the idea that students do not tell teachers and administrators of what is going on in school, students feel they are powerful and can control the people around them. This then gives them the luxury to persist in abusing their power and likewise create opportunities to also influence others as well.With this environment, bullies are given the supplement to exercise what they want with limited possibility of being penalized or subjected to disciplinary measures. In the long run, bullies also are a problem for society if not addressed appropriately. Here, they can commit crime and limit their ability to engage in long term positive relationships towards other people. The threat then of deplorable conviction alongside the development of specific problems on handling conflict issues with others are just some of the problems that bullies can experience in the future.Identifying Potential Risks of Bullying Student/Individual In determining the risks of bullying among students, it is important to note that since they are the ones who either engage in such behaviour or recipients of it, students are the most prone to experience the hurdle of responding and aligning their behaviour to survive such. That is why different effects, both emotionally and socially, can be seen among students and generates problems as it then relates with other potential risks such as academic achievement, teachers, and parents.Given the dynamics related to this approach, it is then essential to redefine programs that are focused on both victims of bullying and those who commit such acts. Academic Achievement Bullying also poses a risk in a students academic achievement. This cadaver to be seen especially among students who have been subject to continuous bullying and resulted to lack of motivation to go to school or partake in activities. Since some of these areas are important variables to get a good mark, academic achievement is comprised and sacrificed (Rigby, 2003).In particular, the ability to meet these standards becomes burdensome for students because they had to set the balance of adapting to bullies and the stress related to fulfilling the requirements of their subjects. Likewise, academic achievement is also at risk for bullies also because it gives them the leverage to abuse their power and gain opportunities to coerce people to follow their lead. Given that bullies have this ability, they can then ask others to do their assignment and submit specific projects or otherwise be beaten up.This then d efeats the purpose of the educational process as bullies dont learn anything and the bulk of the workload is provided to bullied students. Overall, bullying becomes a risk for academic achievement because it hinders students the ability to concentrate on their studies. Though the socialization process also is a significant precept in ones academic life, the instance of bullying complicates the problem and leaves students the capacity to balance each of these tasks according to how they see it fit.Such reactions in turn limit students to reach their full potential and hamper their abilities to utilize their skills in academic activities (Smith, 1999). Parents and Intervention enatic intervention is also another risk that bullying creates. Under this process, parents are often clueless of what is happening to their children. Expecting that they do well in school, it can blemish a childs relationship with their parents especially if a student tells their parents they dont want to go to school anymore or learns from their teachers that their child often absents.The basic assumption here is that since parents can exercise control, bullying hampers effective communication among parents because students feel that this can only refuse the issue theyre facing. Here, Banks (1997) point out, students feel that adult intervention is infrequent and ineffective, and that telling adults will only bring more harassment from bullies (p. 1). Likewise, if bullying transpires within a student-teacher relationship, then it is also another difficult thought for students to balance.Allowing their parents to intervene would only result towards educators putting the blame on students or become intimidate further in class. The aspect then of defining misbehavior and what is the boundary between the process of disciplining and bullying becomes an issue to consider (Lewis, Romi, Katz, and Qui, 2008). Similarly, since students find it difficult to establish and determine these bounda ries accordingly, they are often left succumbing to intimidation, coercion or at times reprimand that crosses the line of how issue should be provided.Indeed, it has always been the interests of parents to see to it that their child gets the most out of school. However, bullying impedes these expectations and at the same time serves as a barrier for students to communicate to their parents effectively. By understanding the dynamics related to the use of the parents in this issue, better means for intervention can be made available for students to use (Lewis, 2001). Teachers and Administrators Lastly, the prevalence of bullying within schools also becomes a risk among educators and administrators because it illustrates their inability to control the issue.Since both actors are valuable stakeholders in the maintenance of an effective learning environment among students, the increased incidence of bullying in schools makes them responsible to these childrens parents. Likewise, both educators and administrators need to realize that their role encompasses the insides of the classroom. They must see to it that the school environment is responsive to students need and assesses potential risks and providing solutions to these issues (Lewis and McCann, 2009).Applying this precept in the realm of student-teacher relationship, bullying also poses a risk among teachers and administrators because the incidence of such behaviour violates their roles and responsibilities within the classroom. Given that there are certain parameters that educators can use to discipline students, it must not cross the line and induce traces of intimidation, coercive action, or physical violence among students (Lewis, Romi, Qui, Katz, 2005).Seeing this, bullying makes a difficult process to develop since establishing a proper means to discipline and sanction students for misbehaviour would appear to be compromised or construed in a different way. Opening up Opportunities for diverseness Gi ven the potential risks and effects that bullying does, it is then crucial to devise specific measures that can infuse changes and increase responsibility among actors involved. Here, it takes into account the role of each stakeholder in the educational process and finds means to integrate ideas and inputs to generate a facilitative response to the issue.That is why change must not come from the educational sector alone, rather it must try to reach out and allow parents, students, and the community to get involved. The purpose of this not mainly revolves around limiting the fact of bullying in classrooms but also generate an appropriate response on how to prepare students to effectively respond to democratic ideals and values (Lewis, 1999). Evaluation, Experience, and Education The low gear step in establishing providing change revolves around evaluating the current school environment.Here, educators and administrators may need to ask whether or not bullying is rampant on campus o r not. Here, it is important to note that the ability to apply real change in the process involves not disregarding the realities that are happening and simply seek out to know the truth (Smith, 1999). Through such mindset, administrators can have a clear picture of what is happening in the school environment and understand the dynamics related to how students interact and respond to the issue of bullying. The next horizontal surface involves gathering experiences from students and observing what really happened.Through this, administrators can then realize how rampant the situation is and what possible strategies can be used to alleviate the issue. Seeing this, experiences matter in resolving the issue because it helps observers learn from it and gain specific insights on how to respond accordingly (Findley, 2006). Likewise, experiences also highlight the shortcomings and mistakes of the school in how they had addressed the bullying issue before. In essence, these facets can serve as useful tenets that administrators can use to define and plan out the next strategies to be used (Banks, 1997).The last part revolves around education. Under this process, administrators now provides specific inputs on what needs to be done and lays it out for educators to apply and use. Here, specific importance is given towards communicating to stakeholders about the issue that is happening, its gravity, and how it is affecting students from academics to their personal life. This remains to be important because this serves as the crucial precept in determining what actions need to be made and how different actors would respond in accordance to the issue of bullying.Likewise, education seeks to bridge inputs and policies together. This stage serves as the application phase where behaviour is patterned according to the observations and inputs gained from experience. By synchronising these inputs altogether, it helps create a dynamic process and further the ability of promoting su stainable and long term growth (Rigby, 2003). Diversifying the Anti-Bullying Campaign Given the inputs gained from experience and observation, the next step to address bullying would be to create an Ant-Bullying campaign in schools.Here, it must entail a collaboration of actors involved in the educational process and establish specific norms and responses in addressing specific cases. If an educational institution already has particular rules concerning bullying, it would be best to diversify options available. To diversify means that the scope, application, and analysis of cases must come from different actors. The purpose of this is to enrich communication patterns among stakeholders and generate new inputs on how bullying can be addressed within and outside the classroom (Rigby, 2003).The attempt to diversify must also seek to promote the aspect of inclusion. This means that decision making processes must not come from the school administration alone. Rather, it must try to inclu de and introduce this principle to the community and parents. This is particularly relevant because it can showcase transcendence and capacity to align specific policies and behavioural changes according to the values and principles provided by the school (Banks, 1997). This then can become a good strategy for success because it merges common interests altogether and justifies what inputs need to be considered and applied.In essence, diversification entails creating a shared responsibility among actors involved in the educational process. The ability to include parents and the community within the dynamics of change, it can create better responses among students. This process can also serve to complement an educator and administrators increasing tasks by providing an assistive strategy related to implementation of educational goals and objectives (Findley, 2006). Opening Patterns for Communication Another crucial step to address bullying revolves around the process of infusing commu nication among students.The idea here is to develop the ability to track down cases of bullying and providing appropriate disciplinary measures to culprits and protection amongst victims. Here, educators, parents, and the community must work hand-in-hand to ensure that appropriate means are created to open lines of communication among students regardless of the possibility of threats from bullies (Smith, 1999). The value of communication then is to help ascertain the full point of bullying happening in school and determine what actions need to be made in order to accomplish these directives. Strengthening Disciplinary and Protection Measureson board the development of openness in communication patterns, educators and administrators should also contribute their part in providing concrete and available means to exercise disciplinary and assistive measures for bullying. The main reason why many students dont complain about this issue is the fear of retaliation and the ability to distr ust how the overall process industrial plant (Banks, 1997). Due to this, the capacity to strengthen strategies and instruments related to the process discipline can then motivate students to take part in the initiative to stand up against bullying.At the same time, inducing means for protection and counselling would also complement the ability to limit the occurrence of bullying. By providing specific and goal-oriented strategies, educators and administrators can align behaviour according to the needs of a student. Allowing students to take part in this endeavour also justifies that the school administration is committed in putting an end to bullying rather than just trying to control. Thus, redefining the rules and regulations to meet these requirements can induce positive outcomes and carry out means to shape students for the better (Lewis, 1999).Reinforcing Accountability and obligation among Educators Given the idea that bullying can also transpire in a student-teacher relatio nship, it also crucial to reinforce accountability and responsibility among educators. Here, it revolves around facilitating the value of openness and professionalism of practice. Under this process, specific rules can be modified and changed to adapt to the trends of 21st century education. By doing this process, it can allow educators to become more responsive and address the increasing needs of students in the classroom.Arguing further on the need to redefine rules, it is also crucial for administrators to take into consideration defining the boundaries of what the aspect of discipline and bullying diverge. Since educators can also be subjected to stress, pressure, and emotional conditions that distracts them from achieving their purpose, it is then essential to outline specific strategies that can help handle misbehaviour and occurrences of bullying inside the classroom.By redefining and aligning these principles with respect to educational norms and the needs of educators, the idea of reinforcing discipline and sanctions would become constructive and induce better means for addressing student behaviour (Lewis, Romi, Qui, and Katz, 2005). In essence, the increasing roles and responsibilities sometimes limit the educator to function to his/her optimum capacity. By trying to align and create changes in the way educators operate, it can help induce greater means for educators to effectively facilitate classroom management and diversify opportunities to address bullying.Conclusion To conclude, bullying is a huge issue in classroom management that educators and other relevant stakeholders need to consider. This is because it takes into account the ability of both educator and student to use their power and position to promote intimidation and coercion to other people. Similarly, it creates negative consequences on the bully and those bullied in terms of their ability to respond to the environment, motivation, to study, and other behavioural long term effects. B ullying also creates risks on different facets shaping learning and professional development among educators.Given these challenges, it is then crucial to outline policies for change. It is important to note that the ability to transcend in this type of environment inside and outside the classroom corresponds to the recognition and redefinition of student behaviour. At the same time, it must also try to incorporate openness in communication and value inputs gained from experiences in the past. Fundamentally, the basis for managing and preventing bullying from happening circumvents from the recognition of each members role and aligning these ideas within policies and rules.In the end, as the current educational system continues to undergo changes that affects the role of students, educators, administrators, and other stakeholders, classroom management issues such as bullying would always be existent. The challenge then is to ensure that appropriate mechanisms are in place to address the situation and effectively carry out patterns to make appropriate changes and models suitable to meet the demands of todays 21st century educational environment.List of References Banks, R (1997), Bullying in Schools, ERIC Digest, viewed 29 Jul. 2010, http//www. ericdigests. org/1997-4/bullying. htm Findley, I (2006) Shared Responsibility Beating Bullying in Australian Schools, Australian Council for Educational Research, Australia. Lewis, P (1999), Preparing students for democratic citizenship Codes of conduct in Victorias Schools of the Future, Educational Research and Evaluation, vol. 5 no. 1, pp. 41-61 Lewis, R (2001), Student Responsibility and Classroom Discipline The Students View, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 17 no. 1, pp 307-319Lewis, R and McCann, Tricia (2009), Teaching At Risk Students Meeting Their involve, International Handbook of Research on Teachers and Teaching. LJ Saha and AG Dworkin (eds), Springer Science + Business Media LLC, US Lewis, R, Romi, S, K atz, Y, and Qui, X (2008) Student reaction to classroom discipline in Australia, Israel, and China, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 24 no. 1, pp. 715-724 Lewis, R, Romi, S, Qui, X, and Katz, YJ (2005), Teachers classroom discipline and student misbehavior in Australia, China and Israel Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 21 no. 1, pp. 729-741 Rigby, K (2003), Bullying among young children a guide for teachers and careers, Commonwealth of Australia, viewed 29 Jul 2010, http//www. ag. gov. au/agd/WWW/rwpattach. nsf/VAP/(1E76C1D5D1A37992F0B0C1C4DB87942E)Bullying+Teachers. pdf/$file/Bullying+Teachers. pdf Riley, P, Lewis, R, and Brew, C (2009), Why did you do that ?Teachers justify the use of illegal aggression in the classroom, Teaching and Teacher Education, pp. 1-8 Smith, PK (1999) The nature of school bullying a cross-national perspective, Routledege, US

Behaviorism Theory

Behaviorist theorists believe that conduct is shaped deliberately by forces in the surroundings and that the type of person and actions desired can be the product of design. In other words, behavior is determined by others, rather than by our own unload will. By carefully shaping desirable behavior, morality and information is learned. Learners will acquire and remember responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects. Repetition of a meaningful nexus terminations in learning. If the student is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced if not, learning is inhibited. Motivation to learn is the satisfying aftereffect, or reinforcement.Behaviorism is linked with empiricism, which stresses scientific information and observation, rather than unverifiable or metaphysical realities. Behaviorists search for laws that govern human behavior, like scientists who look for pattern sin empirical events. Change in behavior must be observable internal thought processes are not treated. Ivan Pavlovs research on using the reinforcement of a bell sound when food was presented to a get behind and finding the sound alone would make a dog salivate after several presentations of the conditioned stimulus, was the beginning of behaviorist approaches.Learning occurs as a result of responses to stimuli in the environment that are reinforced by adults and others, as well as from feedback from actions on objects. The teacher can help students learn by learn them through identifying the desired behaviors in measurable, observable terms, recording these behaviors and their frequencies, identifying appropriate reinforcers for each desired behavior, and providing the reinforcer as soon as the student displays the behavior.For example, if children are supposititious to raise hands to get called on, we might reinforce a child who raises his hand by using praise, Thank you for raising your hand. Other influential behaviorists intromit B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) and James B. Watson (1 878-1958). Cognitivism/Constructivism Cognitivists or Constructivists believe that the savant actively constructs his or her own understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment, and reflecting on these interactions.Early perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused on the making of wholes from bits and pieces of objects and events in the world, believing that meaning was the plait in the brain of patterns from these pieces. For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with what the learner already knows. Therefore, the learners previous experiences determine what can be learned. Motivation to learn is experiencing conflict with what one knows, which causes an imbalance, which triggers a quest to restore the equilibrium.Piaget described intelligent behavior as adaptation. The learner organizes his or her understanding in organized structures. At the simplest level, these are called schemes. When some thing new is presented, the learner must modify these structures in order to fight with the new information. This process, called equilibration, is the balancing between what is assimilated (the new) and accommodation, the change in structure. The child goes through four distinct stages or levels in his or her understandings of the world.Some constructivists (particularly Vygotsky) emphasize the shared, social construction of knowledge, believing that the particular social and cultural context and the interactions of novices with more expert thinkers (usually adult) facilitate or scaffold the learning process. The teacher mediates between the new stuff and nonsense to be learned and the learners level of readiness, supporting the childs growth through his or her zone of proximal development. Behaviorism Posted in Behaviorist Theories, Paradigms and Perspectives 0 comments compendium Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of stimulus-response.All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness. Originators and important contributors John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, E. L. Thorndike (connectionism), Bandura, Tolman (moving toward cognitivism) Keywords Classical conditioning (Pavlov), Operant conditioning (Skinner), Stimulus-response (S-R) Behaviorism Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.The learner starts off as a clean slate (i. e.tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. twain positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the anticipatory behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e. g. Pavlovs dogs) and generalized to humans.

Woody Allen – Annie Hall

Changes Woody Allens Annie Hall is a film that depicts the life of a character named Alvy Singer, a comedian who ever seems nervous, is full of self-loathing, doesnt read a positive perspective on life, had an unhappy childhood and has been divorced twice. He write outs he has problems still skunkt figure appear how to solve them in a dignified way so uses sex as a substitute. By the end of the film however, he shows a significant change over in his outlook on life, due mostly to his recent birth with a woman named Annie Hall.They end their relationship save Alvy learns from it, makes changes in his life, and uses it as a stepping stone into his future. The frontmost moment where he shows change is when he compliments Annie after her offshoot performance at a night club. She thinks she did horribly so he gives her reasons why she wasnt as ruffianly as she thought which cheers her up. This signifies Alvy turning a bad function into a good one and shows confidence for the first time. Another moment where he shows change is his meeting with Annie in Los Angeles after they have broken up for good.He does things that he is usually reluctant to do leaving New York City, driving a car, and eating at a health food restaurant. Although it doesnt end comparable he hoped, he accepts that they arent going to be together either longer and doesnt complain, which is his usual response. In addition, he shows growth when he writes a play rough his relationship with Annie, which shows their last meeting in L. A. but with an alternate conclusion with them together proving that the relationship affected him enough to analyze and criticism it.He views the relationship as a learning experience and uses the play to articulate his experience in a productive way, something he hasnt done yet. Lastly, the ending of the film shows the most significant change from Alvy. He meets with Annie and seems genuinely happy to spend time with her and says hes glad that he got to know her, irrelevant to his prior notion to have sex to solve his problems. Alvys first noticeable change occurs after Annies audition at the club.Its her first time and she thinks that her performance was awful because the audience wasnt paying attention and there were distractions such as microphone feedback, dropping glass, and a ringing phone. subsequently her performance, theyre walking down the street and he cheers her up by telling her that the crowd was a tad restless and that she has a wonderful give tongue to (42). He usually saw things in a negative light before this moment and this was the first time in the film where he off a bad situation into a offend one.This helped Annie continue her singing and she improved later because of Alvy and opened new doors for her, thanks to Alvys persuasion and change of view. He saw the possible relationship between them as something worthwhile and it ultimately led up to his transformation at the end of the movie. He makes her exp erience get aroundconfident enough to brag, Yeah, you know something? I never even took a lesson, either (42). She accepts his support and Alvy realizes he would need to support her th stark(a) rough times to keep the relationship rolling.And it meant that he would have to adjust his views and habits to keep her happy. They both changed a little in this slam with both of them being more(prenominal) positive toward bleak situations and Alvy bringing goods out of this situation. After this, he convinces her to kiss him saying that it will digest their food bump (43). Maybe he state this joke just to have sex with Annie (which he does in a few scenes) and wouldnt be much of a change. further he treasured to be in a long term relationship because he told Annie that he wouldnt let her quit singing.He foresaw that he could help her become a better person and maybe figure himself out along the way, reiterating that he was aware of his problems and wanted to change his ways. After t hey break up and Annie moves to Los Angeles, Alvy takes the initiative for the first time and flies to L. A. from New York City to decide and convince her to marry him. He rents a car to see her and when he tells her this on the phone, she seems surprised do Alvy to say What-why is that such a miracle? (97).He isnt fond of California and despises driving so its obvious that he wants to be with Annie because hes doing things he that he usually doesnt and tries new things to get what he wants. Even Annie notices the change because she knows that Alvy doesnt like driving. He fights to get back with Annie, a worthy change for a man who has been divorced twice and uses sex to relieve his problems. When Alvy arrives at a health food restaurant, he tells the waitress Im gonna . . . Im gonna have the alfalfa sprouts and, uh, a plate of mashed yeast (97). Its a very dd combination, but his choice proves that he was willing to try new things to be with Annie. He figures that he has to mak e adjustments in his own life in order to better suit Annies way of life. But they immediately start bickering with Annie vehemently saying Alvy, youre incapable of enjoying life, you know that? I mean your life is New York City. Youre just this person. Youre like this island unto yourself (98). Alvy then stutters on but doesnt say anything coherent, her words hitting him like two tons of bricks, knowing that what she said was true.He knows that his problems are unconnected other peoples. He knows that he has to change his negative perspective on life if he ever wants to be with Annie or get into any other meaningful relationship. He knows that no one knows him like Annie. So he accepts her criticism for the first time and takes her words into consideration. He realizes he would have to stop living self-consciously in his own world of illusion (Conard 109). The play Alvy is directing about his rendezvous with Annie in Los Angeles indicates that he used their relationship to his adv antage and now understands himself better.He writes what really happens until he makes his character say Okay, if thats all that weve been through together means to you, I guess its better if we just said goodbye, once and for all (102). Although it may seem immature of him to change the ending to end on his own terms, it proves that he knew that he couldve acted better instead of arguing with Annie the entire time. That moment was monumental in his transformation and is still dieing it out in his head. He also changed the last scene to end in his favor with Annie saying Wait Im-Im gonna . . go with you and I love you(102). This shows growth in Alvy because he is expressing his heartbreak in a healthy manner instead of feeling sorry for himself. Also, changing the ending suggests that he knows he can control his life now that he has a better perspective on it. In reality though, she told Alvy that she didnt love him so he makes her say it to envision how he would have wish it to e nd, on his own terms and with his own decisions. After this scene he looks at the audience and says Tsch, whatta you want? It was my first play.You know, you know how youre always tryin t get things to come out perfect in art because, uh, its real difficult in life (102). He knows that hes changed but still has some work to do in order to get the ending he wants. His life isnt perfect and uses the play to figure himself out and is still using that relationship to become a better person. Hes now able to reflect on his mistakes and turn them around to work for him. The final part of Alvys transformation is shown when he runs into Annie in New York and they go out for lunch.After lunch, they shake hands and kiss each other friendly like (105). Their prior encounter ended in disarray and she wouldnt have kissed him if she didnt have a good time this time around. It can be interpreted that Alvy has changed for the better and Annie has noticed this change, causing the friendly kiss. He then exclaims I realized what a terrific person she was and-and how much pastime it was just knowing her (105). She was the first woman that he came across that he actually appreciated rather than use for sex.Hes glad that he got to know her because she helped him change his perspective on relationships from lust and sex to just having a partner who can make him better himself. Its clear that he views relationships differently when he tells his last joke, this guy goes to a psychiatrist and says Doc, uh, my brothers crazy. He thinks hes a chicken. And, uh, the doctor says, Well, why dont you turn him in? And the guy says, I would, but I need the eggs. Well, I guess thats pretty much how I feel about relationships. You know, theyre totally irrational and crazy and absurd and . . but, uh, I guess we keep goin through it because, uh, most of us need the eggs. (105) He realizes that we all go through the tribulations of relationships because of what lies at the end of the road. It may be positive or negative and in Alvys case, it turned out that it made him a better person. He now knows how to handle a relationship and knows that its not all about him. After dealing with his problems, he learns that the aftermath can proceeds him. Annie Hall may be a romantic comedy, but we can use it to help ourselves.According to Michael Castrignanos biography on Allen, he was divorced twice before the release of this movie, similar to Alvy. Alvy used to be a negative person who didnt want to solve his problems but after a bad situation, turned his life around. He learned how to turn a negative into a positive, that he has to take the initiative, how to express himself instead of feeling sorry, and that relationships cant be all about sex. Perhaps Allen used Alvy to help himself and we in turn can use Alvy as an example on how to deal with our problems.We may not necessarily have the same types of problems but we can make turn a negative into a positive. He reflected on th e whole situation and used it to change his views on life. We all go through bad times but if we change our perspectives on certain things, we can usually benefit from it. Works Cited Castrignano, Michael. Biography for Woody Allen. IMDb. 2010. 25 March 2010 Conard, Mark T. , ed. , and Aeon J. Skoble, ed. Woody Allen and Philosophy You Mean My Whole Fallacy is Wrong? Peru Open Court, 2004. quadruple Films of Woody Allen. New York Random House, 1982.

Of Mice and Men Scene Analysis Essay

1. Re-read p. 49 from George followed to the door and shut the door until George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them. on p. 50. How does Steinbeck create tension in this extract? Remember to drill Point-Evidence-Explanation (referring to delivery techniques and effects), giving the endorsers personal response.The section between George followed to the door and shut the door until George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them is a particularly tensed crack because the reader and the characters are waiting for a specific event to happen. Carlson has taken sweetens dog to shoot him. In the scene, everyone is waiting for the crack cocaine, which is the climax depute of the tension, and the waiting makes the tension worse.The scene comes after we have viewed the argument of the men more or less dulcorates dog. Candy doesnt take to kill his dog, so Carlson takes the dog outside to put it out of its misery. The reader might think that the men are being selfish, because th ey arent thinking about Candy who loves his dog, alone about themselves. Candy looked a extensive conviction at Slim to try to find some reversal. And Slim gave him none. We posterior see that even Slim, who isnt selfish, doesnt try to stop Carlson.The scene instigates with George closing the door and setting the latch gently in its place. The word gently suggests that he doesnt want to draw any attention on him, so he tries not to make any noise. The fact that he shuts the door suggests that he doesnt want Candy to hear the shot. Candy lay rigidly on his bed staring at the ceiling. His position shows how anxious he feels.Slim tries to start a conversation, but instead of an answer, tranquilize came into the means. The word shut away is repeated many times in this section, and it emphasizes the tension in the bunk. The phrase silence came into the room suggests that its an unwanted invader. The characters dont really want to sit in silence, because this means that they leav e behind be able to hear the shot and that will upset Candy. But the fact that they are silent makes the reader think that even though they seem tough, they are capable of sensitivity.It was silent outside. Carlsons footsteps died away. The silence came into the room. And the silence lasted. These are short sentences which create suspense. They make the reader stop and think about whats possibility. The pauses slow down the pace, and it moves slowly towards the inevitable conclusion, the shot. The use of short sentences might also suggest that the reader wants to read faster and finish this depressing scene.There is another unsuccessful attempt for conversation, by George I bet Lennies right out there in the barn with his pup. George mentioning Lennies puppy reminds everyone that Candys dog is about to get shot and increases tension. Slim tries to comfort Candy you seat have any one of them pups you want. The reader here feels sorry for Candy and is wondering if another puppy can replace his dog.The personification later on highlights the tension in the bunk. The silenceinvaded the room. However, George interrupts it by suggesting to play a little euchre. This shows that hes trying to bear on the attention of the others focused somewhere else.He rippled the edge of the deck nervously, and the little snapping noise drew the eyes of all the men in the room. We can see that George is nervous, because he is waiting for the shot and also for Candys reaction. In addition, we can see that the men are aware of the sounds going on in the room. The little snapping noise wouldnt be so noticeable under normal circumstances, and this emphasizes, again, the tension.A minute passed, and another minute. Things seem to be happening in slow-motion. They take longer than usual. Whit suddenly exploded What the hells takin him so long? It cant take long to shoot a dog, but because they are anticipating hearing the shot, everything seems to take longer. This sudden explosion sug gests that they want this awkwardness to end as soon as possible.Candy lay still, staring at the ceiling. The fact that he hasnt moved suggests that he is anxious. Slim subdued one hand with the other and held it down. Slim until this dose is portrayed as calm, but we can see that he is also affected by the tension in the bunk. The reader is now curious about what will happen next, even though they know what that is.A little gnawing sound came from under the floor and all the men looked down toward it gratefully. The word gratefully suggests that they feel relieved by the interruption. These interruptions make the scene more dramatic and suspenseful. Steinbecks preoccupation with tiny noises makes the atmosphere full of tension. These noises contrast the silence the reader encounters during the scene. Despite the interruptions, Candy continued to stare at the ceiling. This makes the reader feel sorry for him, because he cant do anything now.The fact that the characters dont move a lot makes the tension even worse. The reader feels that they are unmoving in anticipation of what is about to happen. However, Whit tries to get the place living and tells to George to lay out some cards.Suddenly, a shot sounded in the distance. The shot is almost a relief to everyone. Every head turned toward him. The men looked at Candy to see his reaction. He rolled slowly over and faced the wall and lay silent. Candys reaction suggests that he doesnt want to show his emotions to the others. The reader is now wondering what Candys thoughts are and feels empathy for him, because all of this was out of his control.George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them. This suggests that after the shot everything is back to normal, the silence and tension left like they had come.The tension in this scene is achieved by the author in a variety of ways, from the choice of words to the description of the time passing. It engages the reader and makes them feel sorry for Candy and his dog, his only true companion. The reader has now a lot of questions Where will this incidence lead? Will Candy get another puppy? Will something similar happen further on? Next time the victim might even be a human.

Why I am against the death penalty

Why I am against the conk out penalisationThe decease penalty has been used for old ages as a manner to penalize the guilty. everyplace the old ages the decease penalisation has cost our arbiter system 1000000s. Besides the cost, it violates our Human Rights Bill and punishes the acquitted stack. The decease punishment is non effectual at cut downing offense. Our society is non any safer and does non discourage flock from interrupting the jurisprudence. There are many different options in our system to contend offense, but the decease punishment in non one of them.The decease punishment is supposed prevent others from killing but it does non. Harmonizing to goal penalisation Information Center the top academic criminological societies, 88 % of these experts rejected the impression that the decease punishment acts as a hindrance to slaying. Fear of the decease punishment has dinky consequence on pile perpetrating slaying. A slaying it normally starts, as an statement go ne bad when the single is angry. The mean individualistic does non walk outside and says, I think I will kill today . No 1 makes decease punishment their first thought when they leave the house. It neer crosses the people mind if they kill a individual, they will acquire the decease punishment. Peoples are still killing and it has non slowed down the figure of slaying instances in the US. If the decease punishment is directing a message, unluckily no 1 is listening to the message.Second, the decease punishment cost more for an executing versus life in prison. Our state fades 1000000s to put to death captives versus go forthing them in prison. Our state is obligeing a budget crisis but it seem like we have 1000000s of dollars for the decease punishment. Harmonizing to expiry Penalty Information Center California spends it cost $ 232.7 million per twelvemonth. A captive can lessen life without parole cost $ 90,000 a twelvemonth per inmate. We spend a immense sum for a syste m that has small consequence on offense.Third, the decease punishment goes against our Human Right Bill. On declination 10, 1948, United Nations adopted the Human Rights Bill. Harmonizing to Article 5 provinces that No 1 shall be subjected to torment or to cruel, inhuman or degrading intervention or penalty . The decease punishment is hardhearted to worlds and a barbarous penalty. We say do non kill, but we are making the same thing. A signifier in which a human life is being taken by executing is unmerciful. Many captives reform term they are in prison. Criminals have committed some indefinable offenses, but they do non merit to hold their life to stop. The US has changed the significance of Human Rights Bill to warrant our system subsiding of tonss against another. In 1986, 48 states has get rid of the decease punishment.Fourth, the decease punishment has executed people who are non guilty. If we continue the Death punishment, non guilty people will decease. Harmonizing to dec ease Penalty Information Center Since 1973, over 130 people have been released from decease row with grounds of their artlessness. From 2000-2007, there has been an norm of 5 exonerations per twelvemonth . The job with the decease punishment is that guiltless people is killed. The system makes errors and do non ever have the grounds when convicting people. Many captives spend old ages functioning clip for a offense they did non make. There is no refinement for them or their home bases. Justice system do non oppugn how many non guilty has died. We can penalize them stop other ways beside the decease punishment.They argue that the decease punishment put to deathing those that are guilty. Capital penalty takes many stairss to countenance that fewer errors is made. In support of their side it is true that malefactors get a just test in the legal system. Our system assures that lives will be save by executing, merely the opposite there small grounds to turn out that the decease pun ishment saves lives.Retribution for a offense means the judge system is traveling to acquire even for the offense you committed. Retribution it is a barbarous manner for our justness system warranting what they are making. Taking the life of the people who has killed, we are making the same offense. Killing the felon is non traveling to convey back the victim. We justified it by stating it will convey closer to the victims households. The victim household heals no faster than they did while the captive was in gaol. They will sorrow the same manner in the same sum of clip. The system is adding slaying on top of slaying there is no destruction to offense. The rhythm goes on and does non stop and the whole intent is the stop slaying. At some point, the system has to stage world and happen another manner that works. Criminal s carry out slaying it is the last-place signifier of offense and the system does the same thing but it gets a enthusiast name.Despite the contain that capital penalty can function as a manner to halt felons. Showing would be felons the effects of their actions. There is a jurisprudence and justness system and you have followed it. The decease punishment should do people believe before making a offense but it is merely the antonym.All things dispense the justness system is morally incorrect when it comes to the decease punishment. The cost to put to death a individual is more expensive than life in prison without word. Knowing that guiltless people will be executed it is hardhearted manner of penalty. We should concentrate more on how stop and prevent offense.

Evaluate a Range of Ways to Embed Elements of Functional Skills in Your Specialist Area.

Evaluate a range of ways to embed elements of Functional Skills in your specialist area. Functional skills are new qualifications developed to allow people to conduct themselves in a confident and independent manner in life. They are practical skills in literacy, numeracy and information parley engine room that provide essential knowledge and understanding. The language courses in my case Italian are aimed at output the knowledge of different people cultures and their ways of expression within community groups and as such embedding working(a) skills helps to develop intelligence, attitude and behavior in each individual.These skills allow individuals to make a positive percentage to the community in which they live and work by laying the foundations for development in any moreover education or training. The language courses incorporate literacy skills through the introduction of the grammar. The learners need to understand grammar well adequacy to pick out the right words wh en they are required to do a translation. According to my knowledge it is a very proficient exercise to pick an article from a magazine or a newspaper and ask each learner to read it out loud and have it translated into the home run language.In this way the principles of knowledge, comprehension and application are put into practice. Another useful exercise can be done by asking the learner to change the verbs in the article from wide-eyed present to simple past or to future tense and have them translated into the target language. The language courses also embed roughly mathematical cin one casepts. An example could be by teaching numbers with dice and make the learners say the sums once the dice are thr take or write on the whiteboard some(prenominal) arithmetical expressions including addition, subtraction, division, multiplication (e. g. 0 + 2 6 x 5 ) and ask the learner to make the calculation. Learners are expected to do some homework on the subjects taught and discussed in class. The homework form containing questions, quizzes, and sentences with gaps to be filled is emailed to each of them. This depart be completed in computerised format and in this way the functional skill of information and communication technology is incorporated. Another way to embed ICT skills in the session is encouraging the learner to do a research using the internet about a cultural event or a geographic area of the country of interest.Things that could develop my skills in embedding Functional Skills in my teaching are the use of some websites such as BBC Languages and Linguascope in my case which could provide some new skill activities that can be introduced in class use of DVDs to record some TV programs like news, cultural events and documentaries in the target language which could provide new subjects for communicaton and listening in class set activities that require students to check for their own and each others learning errors and check for these myself .Thi s can be fulfilled with active learning methods and enjoyable tasks like cards, role play, dice that create more participation , concentration and more cognitive engagement. Functional Skills an Introduction to Functional Skills 20 August 2008 (online) http//www. qca. org. uk/qca_6062. aspx G. Petty (2004) Teaching today. Nelson Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham

The Compare and Contrast Microsoft DOS with UNIX

As is suggestive of its name, an run brass (OS) is a collection of weapons platforms that operate the person-to-person computer (PC). Its primary purpose is to rear programs that actu whollyy do the work one is interested in, and to put up competing programs to sh ar the resources of the computer. However, the OS also controls the inner workings of the computer, acting as a traffic managing director which controls the flow of data by means of the formation and initiates the starting and stopping edgees, and as a means through which software can entre the hardware and system software.In addition, it provides routines for device control, provides for the management, computer programing and interaction of tasks, and chief(prenominal)tains system integrity. It also provides a facility called the substance ab exploiter interface which issues commands to the system software. Utilities are provided for managing charge ups and documents created by users, development of programs and software, communication between users with other computer systems and managing user requirements for programs, storage space and priority. There are a reckon of different types of run systems with varying degrees of complexity.A system such as nation can be relatively simple and minimalistic, while others, like UNIX, can be somewhat more complicated. Some systems expand only a unity process at a time (DOS), while other systems harmonise doubled processes at once (UNIX). In reality, it is not possible for a single processor to exercise multiple processes simultaneously. The processor of the computer runs one process for a short period of time, then is switched to the coterminous process and so on. As the processor executes millions of instructions per second, this gives the appearance of m both(prenominal) processes running at once. user programs are usually stored on a hard dish and need to be loaded into recollection before being executed. This presents the need for memory management, as the memory of the computer would need to be searched for a free area in which to load a users program. When the user was finished running the program, the memory consumed by it would need to be freed up and made available for another user when required (CIT). Process scheduling and management is also incumbent, so that all programs can be executed and run without conflict. Some programs mogul need to be executed more frequently than others, for example, printing.Conversely, some programs may need to be temporarily halted, then restarted again, so this introduces the need for inter-program communication. In fresh direct systems, we speak more of a process (a portion of a program in some stage of execution (CIT, 3)) than a program. This is because only a portion of the program is loaded at any one time. The rest of the program sits waiting on the disk until it is needed, thereby saving memory space. UNIX users speak of the operating system as having three ma in parts the ticker, the musical scale and the turn on system.While DOS users tend not to use the term kernel and only sometimes use the term sheath, the terms remain relevant. The kernel, also k n have as the square Time Executive, is the low-level core of the OS and is loaded into memory right after the commitment of the BIOS whenever the system is started. The kernel handles the transfer of data among the various parts of the system, such as from hard disk to RAM to CPU. It also assigns memory to the various system-level processes that occur whenever the computer does anything. The kernel is also responsible for scheduling the CPUs operations and for letting the shell access the CPU (PC Mag, 1).The shell is the visible user interface to the OS and is a program that loads on top of the operating system and offers users commands that lets them access the OS. Strictly speaking, the shell is an input utility that offers access to the operating system. Technically speaking, the shell, being a steal program, is not a part of the OS at all. In the UNIX world a number of shells are available, among them the Korn shell, the C-shell, the Bourne shell and the Bourne Again shell (yes, really). In DOS, the standard shell is COMMAND. COM, again slide fastener more than a program.As different versions of command. com came with different versions of DOS, each added new commands and new things that could be through with(p) by the user. For example, DOS 4s COMMAND. COM added theP switch to DEL to verify each deletion, and DOS 5s COMMAND. COM provided the ability to sort the output of the DIR command. An acronym for disk operating system, the term DOS can refer to any operating system, but is to the highest degree often apply as shorthand for MS-DOS. Originally unquestionable by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system for IBM-compatible computers.The initial version of DOS was somewhat uncomplicated and resembled another operating system called CP/M. Subsequent versions have become increasingly sophisticated, however DOS remains a 16-bit operating system without support for multiple users or multitasking. The earliest forms of DOS were crude and utilized only a few commands, but as computers became more advanced, so did DOS. By keeping up with technology, DOS was utilise into more user friendly operating systems. However, as more sophisticated operating systems were released, DOS became less(prenominal) important.Today, cyberpunks involved with the latest OS trends joke that DOS stands for Dads Operating System (Comerford, 23). In 1980, IBM asked the Microsoft Corporation to produce the operating system for its initiatory individualized computer, the IBM PC. Prior to this, a company called Seattle information processing system Products had change an operating system called 86-DOS to Microsoft. Microsoft hired the author of 86-DOS, Tim Paterson, in April of 1981 to modify the system, and renaming it MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), it was released with the IBM PC.Thereafter, most manufacturers of personal computers licensed MS-DOS as their operating system (Brittanica, 1). Limitations of the early PCs hardware were a big influence on MS-DOS. Although the 8088 model computer had a 1Mb address space, IBM decided to allocate the frontmost 640K of this to RAM, and the rest to ROMs, video boards and other things. Consequently, MS-DOS was set up to support programs whose maximum size was 640K. Version 1. 0 of DOS was released along with the IBM PC in August 1981. It occupied 12K of the systems 640K of memory, was somewhat compatible with CP/M and, often like CP/M, supported only a single directory.By contrast, even the first version of UNIX had a full hierarchical file system. In addition, Version 1. 0 supported only a 160K single sided 51/4-inch floppy diskette. Version 1. 1 was released by Microsoft in October 1982 and supported double sided 320K diskettes. Aside from restore some bugs, this release was similar to Version 1. 0. Releases such as 1. 1, in which the number to the left of the quantitative point is the same as the previous version depict relatively minor changes from the previous release. By contrast, Version 2. 0 was largely a new system.In March 1983, IBM introduced the PC/XT, its first personal computer with a hard disk. It came with a new variant of MS-DOS, Version 2. 0. In this version, Microsoft incorporated more ideas from the UNIX system for which it was also a vendor. For example, incorporating minor changes, the MS-DOS file system was taken largely from UNIX. In addition, the shell was improved, and Version 2. 0 supported a new floppy diskette format, the 360K as well as user installable device drivers, print spooling, system conformity and memory management.At this point, MS-DOS was established as the dominant allele operating system in PC market. In August 1984, IBM released its first 286 chip based PC, the PC/AT. The PC/AT supported memo ry up to 16 Mb and had the ability to run multiple programs at once. However, the version of MS-DOS that shipped with the PC/AT was 3. 0, which supported neither of these. Rather, it ran the PC/AT in a mode that simulated the 8088, only faster. Since the PC/AT came with a 1. 2Mb disk drive, battery backup clock, and configuration information in the CMOS, support for these devices was added.Whats more, hard disks larger that 10Mb were now supported. In addition, the command processor (shell) was take away from the operating system and made into a separate program. In November 1984, 3. 0 was replace by 3. 1 which provided the first support for ne devilrking. In 1987, IBM came out with the PS/2 line of PC which shipped with MS-DOS 3. 3, providing support for both 720K and 1. 44Mb 31/3 floppy disk drives. With Version 4. 0, Microsoft added the DOS shell, a menu driven shell rather than the previous keyboard driven ones. In addition, it now provided support for hard drives larger than 3 2 Mb.A major new release, MS-DOS Version 5. 0 was shipped in April 1991. Although this was the first version that made any near use of the protracted memory, it still had the restrictions that programs could not exceed 640K. However, it had the ability to locate most of MS-DOS itself in extended memory, so about 600K of the lower 640K was now available for user programs. Version 5. 0 also came with a useful HELP utility, to aid new users. For the first time, MS-DOS was sold in stores to the public (previous versions were only sold to computer vendors who delivered them with their weapons) (CIT, 1-3).The MS-DOS 6 family provided more memory management for applications such as Microsoft Windows. In addition, newer utilities were provided for disk-defragmentation, file compression, file backups and anti-virus checking. Other variations of MS-DOS exist, such as PC-DOS by IBM, DOS-V, Dr. DOS and others. There is even a FREE DOS available on the Internet as an MS-DOS clone. Although it can still be found on more computers, MS-DOS is technically an obsolete operating system, being replaced by Microsoft Windows. For personal computers, MS-DOS is a single user, single tasking operating system. wholeness user means only one person uses the computer at a time. Single tasking means that it essentially runs one application program at a time, and has no inherent support for running more than one application program simultaneously (CIT, 2). If we want to look at the elementary DOS operating system itself, there is no need to look further than three system files, command. com, Io. sys and (in DOS6. x and earlier) Msdos. sys. These files are crucial in DOS versions up to 6. 22. Io. sys represents the lowest level of the interface and contains the routines necessary for interfacing the OS with the systems BIOS.It implements MS-DOS as seen by the hardware and has default drivers for console display and keyboard, printer, incidental communications, clock, and a boot disk dr ive. Msdos. sys handles the higher-level routines such as converting commands from applications into instructions for Io. sys. It implements MS-DOS as seen by application programs. It supports file and record management, memory management, character device input and output, execution of other programs, and access to a real time clock (CIT, 3). Both of these files are in the root directory, and both are hidden from view by default.The idea is that you are not suppose to see them, so that you dont do anything detrimental to them (such as deleting them). They are also read-only so that they cant be deleted accidentally. Command. com is the shell program which interprets user commands, presents the shell prompt, and contains a set of internal commands. The rest of MS-DOS consists of a number of utility programs. Although DOS had command the PC market, UNIX was still dominant on the larger workstations. The birth of UNIX in 1969 provided the world with its first modern operating system .An interactive multi-user operating system, UNIX was initially create by programmers for their own use. Working for Bell Laboratories, visual sense Thompson and Dennis Ritchie created UNIX as an operating system for the PDP-7 computer. Designed as a simplification of an operating system named Multics, UNIX was developed in Assembly language, a primitive computer language specific to one type of machine (Osiris, 1). However, Thompson developed a new programming language B which Ritchie enhanced to C, and in 1973 this was used to rewrite UNIX which lended the OS portability (Linux Intl. , 1).The original design philosophy for UNIX was to distribute functionality into small parts, the programs (Theochem, 1). In this way, functionality could be achieved by combining the small parts (programs) in new ways. Moreover, if a new program were to appear, it could be interconnected into the system. UNIX was slow to catch on outside of academic institutions but soon was popular with business es as well. The first five versions were part of an internal research effort of Bell Labs, and it was not until the sixth version, called UNIX Timesharing Sixth adaptation V, that UNIX was widely distributed (Osiris, 1).Relatively recent developments are graphical interfaces (GUI) such as MOTIF, X Windows and Open View. UNIX has two major versions. One, jointly developed by UNIX Systems Laboratories (USL) and by AT&T researchers together with Bell Labs, generically known as System V, is the commercial version and is the most widely distributed by major manufacturers. The second, developed by the University of Berkley and Berkley Software Distribution (BSD), is the educational version and is completely focused on research. The USL version is now on its fourth release, or SVR4, while BSDs latest version is 4.However, there are some(prenominal) different versions of UNIX besides these two. The operating system has been licensed to several manufacturers who in turn developed their own versions of UNIX, based on System V or BSD, but adding new characteristics. Most versions of UNIX developed by software companies are derived from one of the two groupings and, recent versions of UNIX actually incorporate features from both of them. However, UNIX has had an unregulated fib with over 200 versions (Berson, 16) existing today.The UNIX system is made up of three primary components, the kernel, the shell, and the utilities (which includes the file system). The key part of the OS, the kernel is the first program to start when the system is turned on and the last program to do anything when the system is halted. In addition to scheduling tasks, it manages data/file access and storage, enforces security mechanisms and performs all hardware access. The name KERNEL represents the fact that it is a program designed as a profound nucleus, around which other functions of the system were added.The heart of the operating system, it not only interacts directly with the systems hardware, but presents each user with a prompt, interprets commands typed by a user, executes user commands and supports a custom surroundings for each user. The two most common shells are the Bourne shell, default for the System V, and the C-shell used in the first place with the BSD version (Osiris, 1). The utilities consist of file management (rm, cat, ls, rmdir, mkdir), user management (passwd, chmod, chgrp), process management (kill, ps) and printing (lp, troff, pr).